Web Reference: In causal inference, confounding is a form of systematic error (or bias) that can distort estimates of causal effects in observational studies. Mar 12, 2026 · Confounding is what happens when a hidden third variable distorts the apparent relationship between two things you’re studying. It makes it look like one thing causes another when, in reality, something lurking in the background is driving both. Jun 9, 2021 · This tutorial provides an explanation of confounding variables, including a formal definition and several examples.
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